Egypt: Land of the Pharaohs

Egypt, located in eastern North Africa, is home to what is considered by most to be the world’s most impressive ancient civilization. As the quintessential “gift of the Nile,” Egyptians were dependent upon the life giving waters of the river for successful agriculture, without which the people would be subject to famine. Within this proverbial “land of the black soil,” or Kemet, the Egyptians flourished, but it is integral to an understanding of Egyptian culture to consider the “red land,” or land of death, that extended far beyond the banks of Nile. The Egyptians may have been prompted to philosophical considerations regarding the afterlife when regarding the desolation of the desert sands, wherein a poorly timed venture could easily result in death.

Commentary regarding ancient Egypt is often inclusive of the perception that it was a culture inordinately preoccupied with death. While the Egyptians did observe elaborate burial rituals and provide for what was intended to be the care of the dead, it is within this context that we understand that it was concern for the eternal life of the soul that prompted these rituals, wherein death was not viewed as an absolute, but rather as a new beginning.

These observations are readily evident in the display presented at the Field Museum in Chicago, where viewing the Ancient Egypt exhibit promotes deep respect for a culture representative of exquisite beauty and surprising sophistication that captures our imagination to this day. Upon entering the exhibit, one finds themselves walking into the replica of the tomb of Unis-ankh, the experience of which in itself gives one pause for thought. Touching the cool stone walls, some of which are encased in acrylic to protect the integrity of the artwork, it is breathtaking to consider the great care and reverence of those entrusted with the task of creating these eternal homes. Of particular interest is the “false door” of the tomb, intended to be the portal of the spirit, or Ba, of Unis-ankh. The Ba was traditionally depicted as a human headed bird, and represented the personality, character, or individuality of the deceased. Although the Ba resided within the tomb, it was enabled to exit through the richly engraved stone portal door at will, to intermingle with those who had not yet crossed over into the afterlife.

While the Ba of Unis-ankh enjoyed the intermittent freedom of the afterlife, his Ka, or spirit double, was entreated to reside within the structure of the tomb beside his remains for all eternity. The Ka, an exact physical and emotional replica of an individual infused at the moment of conception within the living heart by the god Khnum, was released by death but required the accouterments of mere mortals to survive. It was believed that the Ka could not live unless the body was preserved, although an enterprising Ka could adapt to living within a strategically placed image of the body as depicted on the walls of the tomb if necessary. Being wholly dependent upon the objects and offerings left within the tomb, the Ka required provisions of food, drink, and clothing. Because the needs of the Ka were ongoing, the families of the wealthy often employed others to attend to the tombs of the deceased. It is interesting to note that the etymology of the word Pharaoh translates literally as “great house,” the Egyptians believing that upon being crowned a god took possession of the body of a Pharaoh. This imagery is therefore apropos to the cultural focus of the Egyptians regarding the need for elaborate burial rites and entombing of the ancient kings, the Pharaohs body being the home of a god, the tomb representative of the eternal home of Pharaoh as god-king.

As befits a king, the great pyramids were a monumental testament to the relevance of Pharaohs in ancient Egypt. While many believed that slaves were employed to erect these eternal dwellings, I share the opinion of those who promote a less cynical view, embracing the concept that it would have been considered an honor to participate in the building of the pyramids from both a cultural as well as a theological perspective. In providing a spectacular tomb for their revered god-kings, an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Egyptians built the great pyramids over a period of 80 years. While envisioning these laborers pushing the tremendous limestone blocks up created ramps to their intended positions in the blazing heat, the rays of the sun that warmed them could have been readily perceived as an encouragement of sorts, the proverbial Eye of Horus looking down upon them as the gods bestowed protection and power to those who served. As architects achieved accurate pyramid shapes by running ropes from the outer corners of the structures to the planned summit, astronomers and priests were instrumental in choosing the pyramids sites to that they would be on the appropriate axis in relation to sacred constellations. Because of the cooperation and community involved in what was doubtlessly considered a royal undertaking of remarkable achievement, every participant in the building of the great pyramids would have recognized their role in perpetuating the eternal life of the Pharaohs, and thereby promoting the glory of ancient Egypt. These are hardly the thought processes of slaves, but rather demonstrates the pride of craftsmanship of a culture intent on preserving their majestic heritage.

In spite of these efforts, however, I was dismayed to learn that although the Bible states in the Book of Ecclesiastes 1:9 that “there is nothing new under the sun” (and I should therefore not be at all surprised by human nature) theft and desecration of the ancient tombs proliferated in the ensuing centuries. Because of the sacrilegious nature of the theft, the most disturbing element of which was the belief that those interred in robbed graves had been denied an anticipated afterlife, the pyramids were eventually regarded as convenient advertisements of where the unethical could access the treasure of others. Although most do not embrace the mysticism of a potential “mummy’s curse,” it seems both appropriate and applicable for those who desecrated the tombs of the kings of Egypt to fall prey to such a phenomenon. While we have garnered magnificent cultural and historic artifacts, for example, from the opening of King Tuthankhamen's tomb, I cannot help but wonder if the cobra that killed the canary belonging to Howard Carter had not been dispensed by the angry gods to appease the boy king for disturbing his slumber.

When considering the necessities of the Egyptian afterlife in relation to the mummification of the body, the preparation of the tomb, and the provisions made on behalf of the Ka, I would be remiss in failing to mention the ritualistic needs of the spirit as provided for in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. It is here that we grasp the fullness of meaning that the afterlife held in Egyptian culture, a display at the Field Museum dedicated to the concept of Negative Confession being of particular interest. There is, I believe, a significant thematic correlation between the concept of a negative confession and the Ten Commandments, wherein the entreaty to refrain from such things as murder, dishonesty, or theft is embodied in the Negative Confession itself, a sample of which translates as “not have I killed.... not have I borne false witness…not have I despoiled the thing of the god.” The idea of post-mortal judgment is conveyed in Book of the Dead, Spell 125, which consists of two long lists of denials of wrongdoing by the deceased, one of which is spoken before Osiris, while the other is spoken before the 42 judges. A review of the lists reveals the types of activities the Egyptians believed were contrary to maat, or truth, with deeds inclusive of blasphemy, thievery, murder, and dishonesty again reflecting traditional Judeo Christian themes. Accompanied by the translation of the Negative Confession is an elaborate display at the museum, which depicts Osiris presiding over the weighing of the heart of the deceased against the feather of maat in the presence of the 42 judges and the god Thoth, who presides both to ensure the accuracy of the balance and to record the results. Standing nearby is the demon Amemet, who waits to voraciously swallow the heart that fails to meet the requirements of maat, assuring the eternal damnation of the wrongdoer.

For the Egyptians, the matter of ethics in declaring vehemently, as in the negative confession “I am pure,” was firmly grounded in their religious world view, religion and morality being anything but mutually exclusive concepts. At the basis of all moral and ethical behavior in ancient Egypt was the concept of maat, which was also an essential element of royalty. It was every Egyptian’s duty to conduct his or her life in accordance with maat, and conversely to avoid committing deeds considered isfet, or wrongdoing, or to engage in gereget, the telling of falsehoods, both of which were considered the opposite of maat. When considering the highly ethical perspective of the ancient Egyptians, it is particularly appalling to consider the behavior of the thieves and robbers who not only disturbed the tombs of the dead, but often times desecrated the bodies as well. This sacrilege reflects a deplorable greed, and promotes what can only be described as an initial sampling of man’s inhumanity to man. There truly is nothing new under the sun, is there.

In acknowledging the Egyptian focus on the sun as being the equivalent of a god capable of purveying truth and grandeur, it is also of interest to note discussions concerning King Tutankhamen’s immediate predecessor, King Akhenaten. King Akhenaten, a revolutionary attributed with having implemented a monotheistic belief system during his reign that embraced the sun as not only a life giving force but rather attributing to it the divinity of a god, promoted the worship of Ra in exclusion to all other religions or deities.

While one can imagine this creating philosophical controversies amongst a collective that had historically embraced polytheistic views, it may have been considered a welcome relief to artisans who were now entreated to create a single solar deity amongst their artwork. By extension, the act of worship itself was also streamlined by King Akhenaten’s stance, as he relayed the qualities of Ra to the masses by enabling Egyptian society to worship him directly and bask in his figurative rays. This “theology by proxy” is in itself an interesting concept, and as discussed may in fact be the henotheistic equivalent of accepted Judeo Christian views of Jesus as the Son of God, worshipped as one component of the trinity. Although King Akhenaten’s reign was relatively short lived within the perspective of history, his affiliation with Ra as sun-god remaining to this day, modern day sun-worshippers willingness to revere the king as god Aten-Ra is questionable considering his described appearance!

Of the many ancient cultures available to us as a result of the dedicated work of archeologists, scholars, and the recently defined Egyptologists themselves, ancient Egypt remains by far one of the most fascinating accounts available to us to date. It is readily evident that Egypt’s extensive contributions to historical art and culture are innumerable, and it’s therefore necessary to encourage those identified as Egyptologists to continue explorations into this ancient world to ensure that nothing is lost to future generations.